Immune phenotypes of microglia in human neurodegenerative disease: challenges to detecting microglial polarization in human brains

Inflammatory responses in the brain, which can be demonstrated by changes in properties of microglia, the brain-resident macrophages, are a common feature of human neurodegenerative diseases. Different monocyte/macrophage phenotypes have been defined by changes in expression of cytokines, receptors and other markers as a response to different classes of stimuli. Monocytes, macrophages and microglia can have a range of phenotypes with associated properties depending on their microenvironment. Macrophage/microglia polarization states have been defined as classical activation (M1), alternative activation (M2a), type II alternative activation (M2b) or acquired deactivation (M2c). Available markers for identifying…

• MJ
  Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research

  Awards: U24 NS072026, 05-901, 211002
• AA
  Alzheimer's Association
• SH
  Sun Health Foundation

  Awards: 211002, 05-901, U24 NS072026
• AD
  Arizona Department of Health Services

  Awards: U24 NS072026, 05-901, 211002
• AB
  Arizona Biomedical Research Commission

  Awards: 05-901, contracts 4001, 0011, 05-901 and 1001, U24 NS072026, 4001, 0011, 05-901 and 1001, 211002
• NI
  National Institutes of Health

  Awards: 05-901, U24 NS072026, R21AG044068-1, R21AG034409-A1, 211002, NS072026
• NI
  National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

  Awards: U24 NS072026, NS072026, 211002, 05-901