Lithium–oxygen batteries: bridging mechanistic understanding and battery performance

Rechargeable energy storage systems with high energy density and round-trip efficiency are urgently needed to capture and deliver renewable energy for applications such as electric transportation. Lithium–air/lithium–oxygen (Li–O2) batteries have received extraordinary research attention recently owing to their potential to provide positive electrode gravimetric energies considerably higher (∼3 to 5×) than Li-ion positive electrodes, although the packaged device energy density advantage will be lower (∼2×). In light of the major technological challenges of Li–O2 batteries, we discuss current understanding developed in non-carbonate electrolytes of Li–O2 redox chemistry upon discharge and charge, oxygen…