Root elongation, water stress, and mechanical impedance: a review of limiting stresses and beneficial root tip traits

Root elongation in drying soil is generally limited by a combination of mechanical impedance and water stress. Relationships between root elongation rate, water stress (matric potential), and mechanical impedance (penetration resistance) are reviewed, detailing the interactions between these closely related stresses. Root elongation is typically halved in repacked soils with penetrometer resistances >0.8-2 MPa, in the absence of water stress. Root elongation is halved by matric potentials drier than about -0.5 MPa in the absence of mechanical impedance. The likelihood of each stress limiting root elongation is discussed in relation to the soil strength characteristics of arable soils. A survey of 19 soils,…