Cadmium stress in plants: A critical review of the effects, mechanisms, and tolerance strategies

Cadmium accumulation in crops and the possibility of Cd entering the food chain are serious concerns for public health. This review discusses the deleterious effects of Cd in plants and the tolerance and resistance mechanisms that evolved to help mitigate cadmium toxicity. Cadmium reduces seed germination, early seedling growth, and plant biomass. It causes changes in photosynthesis, relative water content, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, and electrolyte leakage. Cadmium activates the reactive oxygen species that induce chromosomal aberrations, gene mutations, and DNA damage that affect the cell cycle and cell division. In response, plants have applied several adaptive strategies to overcome and…