Short tandem repeats bind transcription factors to tune eukaryotic gene expression

Short tandem repeats (STRs) are enriched in eukaryotic cis -regulatory elements and alter gene expression, yet how they regulate transcription remains unknown. We found that STRs modulate transcription factor (TF)–DNA affinities and apparent on-rates by about 70-fold by directly binding TF DNA-binding domains, with energetic impacts exceeding many consensus motif mutations. STRs maximize the number of weakly preferred microstates near target sites, thereby increasing TF density, with impacts well predicted by statistical mechanics. Confirming that STRs also affect TF binding in cells, neural networks trained only on in vivo occupancies predicted effects identical to those observed in vitro. Approximately 90%…