Justifications, Excuses, and Sceptical Scenarios

Abstract This chapter argues that epistemologists have misapplied the term ‘justified’ by relying on an impoverished menu of normative options, and in particular by neglecting the category of excuses, for example when classifying as justified the false beliefs of victims of sceptical scenarios. More generally, any norm is shown to generate various logically independent derivative norms, such as being disposed to comply with the primary norm, and doing what someone disposed to comply with the primary norm would do. These distinctions are illustrated with respect to norms of keeping promises and obeying the law. Any norm of fitting one’s belief to one’s evidence is shown to be violated in some cases by agents…