Hydrogen as an alternative fuel: A comprehensive review of challenges and opportunities in production, storage, and transportation

The rapid growth of the global population and industrial activities has significantly increased greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions, with projections indicating a temperature rise of 3–6 °C by 2050. Urgent action is needed to limit global warming to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. Hydrogen, with its high energy density and compatibility with renewable energy systems, presents a promising clean energy solution to mitigate GHGs emissions. Yet, its widespread adoption faces challenges such as high production costs, limited infrastructure, and an underdeveloped value chain. At present, approximately 96% of global hydrogen production relies on fossil fuels, contributing to substantial emissions, while only 4%…