Transesterification and esterification for biodiesel production: A comprehensive review of catalysts and palm oil feedstocks

• Compares catalytic systems for biodiesel synthesis, highlighting performance and limits. • Identifies palm oil derivatives as innovative and sustainable feedstocks for biodiesel synthesis. • Introduces novel strategies to mitigate high free fatty acid content via advanced pretreatments. • Explores the interplay of key process parameters to maximize biodiesel yield and efficiency. • Evaluates the environmental impact and feasibility of palm oil biodiesel through LCA. This review presents a comprehensive and critical evaluation of biodiesel production, emphasizing the synergistic integration of feedstock optimization and catalytic advancements to achieve enhanced efficiency, sustainability, and economic…