Smart integrated biorefineries in bioeconomy: A concept toward zero-waste, emission reduction, and self-sufficient energy production

Integrated biorefineries play a transformative role in sustainable development by converting biomass and biogenic residues into high-value products while minimizing waste, emissions, and resource inefficiencies. This review explores innovations in biorefinery processes, emphasizing the synergy between thermochemical, biochemical, and biological technologies such as pyrolysis, fermentation, anaerobic digestion, hydrothermal carbonization, and algae and insect systems. Recent advancements, including hydrothermal humification and fulvification, enhance nutrient recovery, carbon sequestration, and near-zero waste production by generating artificial humic substances. Smart integrated biorefineries and the…