Advancing Dye Degradation: Integrating Microbial Metabolism, Photocatalysis, and Nanotechnology for Eco-Friendly Solutions

Textile dyes pose a major environmental threat due to their toxicity, persistence in water bodies, and resistance to conventional wastewater treatment. To address this, researchers have explored biological and physicochemical degradation methods, focusing on microbial, photolytic, and nanoparticle-mediated approaches, among others. Microbial degradation depends on fungi, bacteria, yeasts, and algae, utilizing enzymatic pathways involving oxidoreductases like laccases, peroxidases, and azoreductases to breakdown or modify complex dye molecules. Photolytic degradation employs hydroxyl radical generation and electron-hole pair formation, while nanoparticle-mediated degradation utilizes titanium dioxide (TiO2),…