Oxidative stress and free radicals in disease pathogenesis: a review

Free radicals, particularly reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), are highly reactive molecules with unpaired electrons that play a crucial role in cellular processes and disease mechanisms. Generated through normal metabolic activities, enzymatic reactions, and environmental exposures, these radicals can cause significant oxidative stress when their production surpasses the body's ability to neutralize them. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the formation, mechanisms, and effects of free radicals, emphasizing their impact on human health. ROS and RNS, such as superoxide radicals, hydroxyl radicals, hydrogen peroxide, and nitric oxide, are involved in various pathologies…