Synthesis of nanoparticles using advanced techniques

Nanoparticles, defined by at least one dimension in the nanometer range, exhibit exceptional physical, chemical, and biological properties that have led to groundbreaking advancements in medicine, electronics, and catalysis. Their synthesis is a critical step in optimizing their properties for specific applications. This review explores the major nanoparticle fabrication techniques, categorizing them into physical, chemical, and biological methods. Physical methods, such as gas-phase condensation and sputtering, enable large-scale production but often require high-energy inputs, sophisticated equipment, and may introduce impurities. Chemical methods, including precipitation, sol-gel, and hydrothermal…