Diabetic Foot Ulcers: Pathophysiology, Immune Dysregulation, and Emerging Therapeutic Strategies

Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) are among the most common and debilitating complications of diabetes mellitus (DM), affecting approximately 15-25% of patients and contributing to over 85% of non-traumatic amputations. DFUs impose a substantial clinical and economic burden due to high recurrence rates, prolonged wound care, and frequent hospitalizations, accounting for billions in healthcare costs worldwide. The multifactorial pathophysiology of DFUs involves peripheral neuropathy, peripheral arterial disease, chronic inflammation, and impaired tissue regeneration. Recent studies underscore the importance of immune dysregulation-specifically macrophage polarization imbalance, regulatory T cell dysfunction, and…