A comprehensive review on biofilm-associated infections: Mechanisms, diagnostic challenges, and innovative therapeutic strategies

Biofilms are structured microbial communities that form on biotic or abiotic surfaces. They are encased in a self-produced extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) matrix, which allows them to persist, resist antibiotics, and evade the host immune system. Biofilm development is linked to persistent and recurrent infections, including those related to implanted medical devices, wounds, the urinary tract, the respiratory system, and the gastrointestinal tract. Bacteria within biofilms display unique phenotypes compared to their planktonic forms, including changes in gene expression, growth patterns, and metabolic processes, further complicating treatment. Understanding how biofilms develop and are regulated,…