Green strategies for MXene synthesis: Toward sustainable nanomaterials and emerging applications

MXenes, a family of two-dimensional (2D) transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides, have attracted significant attention due to their high electrical conductivity, tunable surface chemistry, and structural adaptability. Conventional synthesis routes often rely on corrosive reagents such as hydrofluoric acid (HF), raising environmental and safety concerns. In this review, emerging green synthesis strategies are systematically examined, including electrochemical, alkali-based, molten salt, chemical vapor deposition, Photo–Fenton, physical, and biogenic approaches. Reaction parameters, precursors, reagents, and resulting surface terminations are discussed in detail. Beyond descriptive coverage, a…