Heavy Metal-Induced Variability in Leaf Nutrient Uptake and Photosynthetic Traits of Avocado (Persea americana) in Mediterranean Soils: A Multivariate and Probabilistic Modeling of Soil-to-Plant Transfer Risks

Soil contamination by heavy metals (HMs) threatens crop productivity, food safety, and ecosystem health, especially in intensively cultivated Mediterranean regions. This study investigated the influence of soil HM contamination on nutrient uptake, photosynthetic traits, and metal bioaccumulation in avocado (Persea americana Mill.) orchards. Twenty orchard sites were sampled, collecting paired soil and mature leaf samples. Soil physicochemical properties and HM concentrations were determined, while leaves were analyzed for macro- and micronutrients, photosynthetic pigments, and metal contents. Bioaccumulation Factors (BAFs) were computed, and multivariate analyses (Principal Component Analysis (PCA),…