Iron-based nanohybrids for sustainable dye removal from wastewater: A comprehensive review on adsorption mechanisms and environmental implications

Synthetic dye-contaminated industrial effluents pose a persistent environmental threat due to their toxicity, chemical stability, and resistance to conventional remediation methods. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of iron-based nanohybrids (INHs) as versatile materials for dye adsorption and catalytic degradation in wastewater treatment systems. A critical research gap is identified in the limited integration of mechanistic insights with considerations of scalability, environmental safety, and economic feasibility. The major adsorption and catalytic mechanisms, including electrostatic interactions, ion exchange, and Fenton-like oxidation, are systematically evaluated under varying operational…