A cross-population compendium of gene–environment interactions

Environmental differences in genetic effect sizes, namely, gene–environment interactions, may uncover the genetic encoding of phenotypic plasticity1–3. We provide a cross-population atlas of gene–environment interactions comprising 440,210 individuals from European and Japanese populations, with replication in 539,794 individuals from diverse populations. By decomposing the contributions from age, sex and lifestyles, we delineate the aetiology of these gene–environment interactions, including a reverse-causality from a disease-related dietary change. Genome-wide analyses uncovered missing heritability and trait–trait relationships connected by the synergistic effects of genome and environments, which…