Functionalized biochar–metal oxide nanocomposites for the catalytic degradation of recalcitrant pollutants in wastewater treatment

. Additionally, carbonaceous nanostructures (CNTs and graphene oxide) enable π-π stacking and delocalized electron mediation for the sensitive detection and transformation of aromatic dye molecules. From a materials chemistry perspective, the innovation lies in tailoring these nano-hybrids at the atomic-to-nano scale, optimizing their mechanical stability, interfacial charge dynamics, and metal-support interactions while comprehensively evaluating their structural persistence and catalytic fidelity under realistic aqueous reaction conditions. AI-directed designs aid in performance optimization. Finally, identifying research gaps, optimizing benefit circulation, and conducting comprehensive life cycle…